Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Networking in professional life Essay

Networking in professional life Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In computing terms, a network is a system of interconnected computers that share a characteristic of being autonomous and have the ability to share information through the interconnection peripherals. Moreover, it is a system of connected computer hardware that are linked by communication channels and protocols that provide a rapid method of sharing information (Tanenbaum, 2011). On the other hand, Network Interface controller (NIC) is a computer system that creates computer connections to a particular network. It is also known as Network Interface Card or network adapter. On the same perspective, a bandwidth refers to the ability of a computer network to send and receive information (data) and is expressed in bits per second (bps). Network Media Types   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In broad spectrum, network media refer to the actual path through which an electronic signal in a system of a computer or computers travels as it moves from one component in the system to another. There are several types of Network media such as; twisted pair cables, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable as well as wireless media (Ciccarelli, & Faulkner, 2006). A situation of network connection problem   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As I mostly use network connection in most of my computerization endeavors, it comes a time when network connection becomes a major problem. For instance, this problems include; difficulties in connection to home networks, problems in accessing information from other interconnected networks as well as slow network connectivity among many other problems (Chen-guang, 2008). However, through the application of my computer skills, I normally manage to deal with such problems through the employment of troubleshooting mechanisms. However the most common problem that had severe impacts on my working is the issue of slow network connection but at the end, I was able to solve it by following several steps as follows; I first identified the active applications, the available users as well as the available conversations to determine where the congestion came from. This was followed by the generation of a purpose built report to determine the applicat ions in use, in order to determine the amount of bandwidth they were consuming. Finally, I was able to set a limit for the applications that were not significant in my place of operation. This eliminated the problem of slow network connection and after all my operations worked to perfection. How will networking Influence my professional life   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In my future career, networking will be of great importance, as I will use all the learned skills to ensure that information flow is efficient by ensuring the use of the best network type considering speed, reliability, efficiency and cost too. It will be my area of strength. References Tanenbaum, A. S. (2011). Computer networks. Boston: Pearson Education. Ciccarelli, P., & Faulkner, C. (2006). Networking Foundations: Technology Fundamentals for IT Success. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. Chen-guang, L. I. (2008). Implementation of netwok management model based on Linux System J]. Railway Computer Application, 6, 012. Source document

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

Effective Management Essay

An effective manager accepts the political nature of organizations. Power tactics are used to translate power bases into specific action, and there are a number of tactics that could be used in various situations. As a manager trying to influence your employees, what tactics would you personally be most likely to use? Why? It is often necessary to have political influence to enable organizational members to achieve their goals, especially if these goals involve some degree of change or innovation. Network is defined by Richard L.  Daft as, â€Å"a system that links together people and departments within or among an organizations for the purpose of sharing information resources. † But, a more common and more subtle form of political behavior involves networking. Networking is when an individual establishes good relations with key organization members and/or key people outside the organization in order to accomplish one’s goals. Something as seemingly trivial as the arrangement of furniture in an office can affect perceptions of another person’s power. One vivid example comes from John Ehrlichman’s book Witness to Power. Ehrlichman described his first visit to J. Edgar Hoover’s office at the Department of Justice. The legendary director of the FBI had long been one of the most powerful men in Washington, DC, and as Ehrlichman’s impressions reveal, Hoover used every opportunity to reinforce that image. Ehrlichman was first led through double doors into a room replete with plaques, citations, trophies, medals, and certificates jamming every wall. He was then led through a second similarly decorated room into a third trophy room, and finally to a large but bare desk backed by several flags and still no J. Edgar Hoover. The guide opened a door behind the desk, and Ehrlichman went into a smaller office, which Hoover dominated from an impressive chair and desk that stood on a dais about six inches high. Erhlichman was instructed to take a seat on a lower couch, and Hoover peered down on Ehrlichman from his own loftier and intimidating place.

Monday, July 29, 2019

The New Colossus By Emma Lazarus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The New Colossus By Emma Lazarus - Essay Example Therefore, it is evident the poem was meant to offer new hope to the immigrants from the tribulation, miseries, and torture of Europe. She says, â€Å"Give me your tired, your poor,Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free† (Lazarus, Joseph & Emma n.p). According to the history of Emma Lazarus, one will be able to understand that the fate of immigrants. In one of the articles written focusing on her poem, the writer remarked that Emma was not affected by the issue of America’s racist attitude toward immigrants in her poem. Instead, she involved herself in politicizing the issue of immigrants through turning the American monument into one that has the history of the Jews (Lazarus, Joseph & Emma n.p). The writer noted that Emma had a welcoming gesture that was as a result of her awareness of the persecution of the Jews across the globe. Emma was also interested in Jewish culture through helping them to face the world since she was working with Jewish refugees at the Wards Island immigration center in 1882. These facts prove that she was advocating for the Jews. The other group of immigrants consisted of different people such as Latin American and was not included in Emma’s poem, which campaign to loosen their bondage. Th is is evident in the poem since Emma was zealous in helping the Jews only. That is why she states, â€Å"Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me† (Lazarus, Joseph & Emma n.p). Also, many writers criticized her poem because they did know the intention that Emma had in advocating for the protection of immigrants. The poem, â€Å"The New Colossus written by Emma Lazarus† was written at the height of immigration, which was happening in America and the world at large.

Sunday, July 28, 2019

PERSUASIVE WRITING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

PERSUASIVE WRITING - Essay Example Among such organizations is the one called â€Å"Feed the Children, Inc.†. It was founded in 1979 in Oklahoma City, and today it works all over the world. As it is mentioned on the official website of â€Å"Feed the Children†, the organization â€Å"exists to end child hunger† and has the mission of â€Å"providing hope and resources for those without life essentials† (Feed the Children, Inc., 2014). Overall, the focus of the organization is to deliver food, drugs, clothes and other necessities to children and their families who lack them all over the globe. Every person can lend a helpful hand and support children in need as the organization presents a range of unique opportunities for those who wish to help out, such as sponsoring a child, volunteering, and organizing special projects (â€Å"Feed the Children, Inc., 2014). The first unique way every person can help a kid in need presented by â€Å"Feed the Children† is called â€Å"Sponsor a Child†. The essence of this option is that the organization gives the opportunity for those who want to be engaged in a program to change a life of a particular child. As the website goes, â€Å"for only $30 a month, you can have a powerful impact in one child’s life; you’ll stop her stomach from growling, give her clean water and send her to school† (Feed the Children, Inc., 2014). For children who live in the developing countries, even thirty dollars can be of a great support and can â€Å"help rescue a boy or a girl from the enemies of childhood – hunger, disease and poverty† (Feed the Children, Inc., 2014). This option allows searching and choosing a child one wants to help; by this, one’s support becomes not only more personalized but more controlled as well because a sponsor has an opportunity to commun icate with the kid he/she decides to help through letters, photos and important information as well as regular updates on the child’s health and well-being. In a course of one month,

Saturday, July 27, 2019

JS MILL ON LIBERTY ASSIGNMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

JS MILL ON LIBERTY ASSIGNMENT - Essay Example That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise, or even right.† (Mill, Pg. 18) Suicide is a personal decision that does not physically harm other individuals. Mill’s Harm Principle clearly applies to self-defense and strives to protect the individual liberty of each of us. As long as our decisions do not affect another’s liberty or life then why must we be harnessed by another’s morality? That is the question that an anonymous 80 year old from Ohio is posing as well. This is the question to be addressed in the following paper. The letter written in June of 2003 outlined the thoughts of an 80 year old individual. Through the letter one can easily grasp that they have lived a full life, which their life is complete and they simply wish to spare their children whom they love greatly the pain and suffering of a long drawn out fight against various cancers. The author of this letter says, â€Å"What I don’t understand is why people think it is wrong for someone like me to just call it a day, throw in the towel.† (Anonymous. Pg.1) the principle moral issue with this is the individual’s right to life, and the individual’s right to their own life. Mill’s clarifies his principle as affecting adults in the â€Å"maturity of their faculties† (Mill, Pg. 19) by his own declaration one’s personal â€Å"good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant† (Mill, Pg. 18) to prevent another from taking their own life into their own hands. The argument most often heard is that suicide affects the family, and yet we see that the true d etriment here per the anonymous authors letter is the continuance which would cost additional monies and anguish from watching as one you love slowly and painfully drifts away. Mill’s point is that society or state has not the right to impose moral standards on an individual if that individual is not harming another physically. The argument can be made that by making it illegal to take decide when one should die, they are in fact presenting ownership of the individual. The very liberty that is proclaimed of body and soul is than repressed at the point of death if one dies as a result of one’s own hand. Mill’s presents the argument that each individual is the proper guardian of their own health; he states that this includes body, mental and spiritual. â€Å"Mankind is great gainers by suffering each other to live as seems good to them, than by compelling each to live as seems good to the rest.† (Mill, Pg. 24) The anonymous older gentleman outlines this by directly asking why it is someone else’s prerogative as to when he should end his own life. An individual’s liberty must include the freedom to decide when they die if they so choose. Unfortunately, the argument has been made that society must care for all lives within its grasp, and even more unfortunately, this is not the social argument as much as the state based society argument. They are able to make the case that the physical health and wellbeing is the prerogative of society and the state and cannot be left in the hands of the individual.

Friday, July 26, 2019

American religion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American religion - Essay Example While the Asian Americans came with astonishingly diverse cultures and religions, it is notable that Christianity, amongst all the different creeds, has significantly permeated their varied forms of religious experiences of the Asian Americans as differentiated from that of the other minority groups in America. In the last century, with a huge number of Asians migrating to America, each of them brought their respective kind of religion akin to their culture and their respective ways of life. Hence to the West came Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and other forms of religious faith. While the Asian Americans came with astonishingly diverse cultures and religions, it is notable that Christianity, amongst all the different creeds, has significantly permeated their varied forms of religious experiences. Christianity was predominant as it seemed to have provided answers to the seeming need for a sense of community or belongingness, ultimately leading to the fulfillment of an ethnic desire for their identity development in America. In attributing the Christian faith to be the popular choice of the Asian American immigrants, it is likewise important to recognize the fact that through this newly acquiesced form of religious fellowship, they have been given opportunities for leadership, a feeling of oneness and unity, a remarkable sense of renewed hope in existing in a foreign environment. All told, the Christian congregations have given in effect the much needed resources to enable them to overcome whatever deficiencies they may have in their social status. In an era that is marked by a myriad passion of faith, the religious role has become an integral part in the process of acculturation. The influence of Christianity in this aspect cannot be ignored. The sharing of common socio-cultural traditions and national history among Asians has led them to this closely-knitted socio-religious networking and has given them comfort in their day to day experiences. To say the least, religion has not only given them a most intimate experience, but more so, a widely shared community sharing that bestows on each one the provision of comfort and solace of life's uncertainties and even that of death, in effect inspiring them to achieve their dreams and aspire for renewed hopes to face the realities of everyday life. To a large extent, it can be said that, this religious orientation has in truth and in fact become very crucial to the adjustments in the way of life of the immigrant populace to their new homes in America. The new immigrants, together with their future generation and their Christian faith that holds them together, will undoubtedly continue to strive and also to survive, perhaps even beyond the boundaries of culture or religious transformations. One interesting aspect though in this thought is to ponder on whether indeed being Americanized is simply undergoing the process of being Christianized. If so, what then becomes of the other minority groups in America sans such religious experiences relating to those of the Asian Americans Is it an issue of mere belongingness, the fear of survival or the need for ethnic identity Does this necessitate the need for the minority groups to find the same commonality in their way of life or in their spirituality for that matter From this, it may b e gleamed that religious orientation has basically been crucial in structuring a different way of life for the Asian immigrants to adapt themselves into the stream of American society. Religion has essentially become a part in understanding the disparity that lie between the Asian Americans and the minority groups. Ultimately, the influence of Christianity on the Asian Americans cannot be ignored. The freedom of religion is embodied both in The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Constitution of the United States of America. While the Universal Decla

Pilot Unions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Pilot Unions - Essay Example These elites do not care about the upper mobility of the middle and lower classes thus they have made college to be expensive and in turn most people from such economic classes are shunning away from college. This will empower the upper classes and their well-educated children to place a stranglehold on labor laws and civil liberties in America.2 Further, there have been transformations in workplaces such as downsizing, rise of contingency work, tightening of coordination, human relations management and squeezing wages.3 Downsizing has resulted to a lesser number of Americans being employed on full time basis due to automation and a rise in contingency work in corporations. Consequently, workload is increased on those employees who remain. Due to engagement of robots services, there have been fewer industrial jobs and less leverage in bargaining with management for the employee who remain. In addition, computerization has increased the ability to service more people thus limiting the number of professionals needed in advanced industrial societies. There has been a rise of the contingency worker through the replacement of permanent workers with temporary or part-time ones. The latter are usually paid less and draw no fringe benefits which works well for the corporations. Such corporations thus remain globally competitive, expand and contract with product lines and market cycles, avoid healthcare and pension costs, vacation pay, training programs and government anti-discriminatory rules. Corporations have tightened coordination through the use of computer systems that coordinate the flow of raw materials, machine time, labor and other resources and the front office is thus able to monitor and coordinate retail and clerical work. For instance, with the employment of the Bell telephone operators, every fifteen minutes, computer terminals near supervisor’s desks print out the office’s complete

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Employee relations and engagement Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Employee relations and engagement - Assignment Example stly, the LOU/IS (Leisure Operatives Union for the Industrial Services) demanded several policies and strategies for the welfare of the employees involved in the amusement industry. Then we inquired the organisational management in order to gain the insight on existing situation and effects of the collective change (Bates and Weighart, 2014). We took a 5 minute break before the Cowells management responded in the negotiation process. Cowells management provided with their own set of proposals that will aid them in increasing their employee engagement and negotiation strategies. Then Leisure Operatives Union for the Industrial Services enquired their queries to the organisational members. The negotiation process included a break of 5 minutes. Finally, the collective bargaining process among the two parties Cowells and Leisure Operatives Union for the Industrial Services will be continued until suspension. Moreover, total three recesses were offered to the parties during the negotiation meeting. I observed that the group working continued till any sort of further collective bargaining or negotiation process (Crump, 2011). On the contrary, I observed that no such bargaining or consultation communications are observed among the two sides. I have observed that second week meeting reached to the agreement. Mainly, our negotiation process will be aimed to increase the efficiency of employee engagement and employee relation policies in the Cowells amusement firm. Cowells provides amusement service in the Northern segment with the help of the M25. Natural attractions of the surroundings are increasing competition for the Cowells (Berens, 2013). We conducted the negotiation or collective bargaining process in order to maintain smooth transition. Our negotiation process included certain consideration for the virtual authenticity and knowledge and skill development in maintaining talent base of the firm. In addition, I observed that the Cowells have higher capital liability

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Definition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Definition - Essay Example Many people have shown the attitude to persevere despite of the difficulties. As a result, they have helped and inspired many to do the same. In this paper, perseverance is defined in three distinct ways: the capability to endure hardships, hard work and committed to the task. Likewise, it will present three famous persons who have shown these characteristics and placed them in the pedestal of success making them good examples to young people. Perseverance is a virtue that entails the ability to endure many adversaries towards the attainment of a goal. This is something Helen Keller showed in her own life journey. We all know that Helen Keller wrote many poems and stories that are widely read by people young and old alike. The inspiring thing about her is that she is blind and deaf. Helen was born on June 27 1880 with the sense of sight and hearing. However, an unknown illness struck her when she was about a year and a half years old. Everyone in her family thought she was going to die. And then unexpectedly, after a few days, she got well. However, her mother noticed that Helen no longer responded to sound (like the ring of the bell) or sight stimuli. They then concluded that the illness has left her a mark which she suffered for the rest of her life. Towards her childhood years, Helen has been very hard to manage particularly when she throws tantrums and screams towards other members of the family. Upon the recommendati on of the family's friend Alexander Graham Bell, Helen's family finally decided to look for a teacher at the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind. Although difficult at first, Helen struggled to learn how to spell words using hand signals. With the efforts of her teacher Ann Sullivan, she continued to improve and master her skills despite of her condition. The highlight of her education happened when Anne brought her to the lake and spelled "water" in Helen's hand and the later immediately understood. From that moment, Helen's improvement was astounding as she could spell thirty new words that day including Anne's name. After this incident, Helen became famous because of an article that was written about her achievement. Eventually, she was also given a teacher to train her how to speak. Helen tried all her efforts to learn how to speak but was unsuccessful because her vocal chords were not fully developed. Still, this didn't stop her from pursuing her dreams. On 1891, she wrote the Frost King as a birthday gift for her friend Michael Agnos. Helen was also recognized as the first deafblind person to enter and finish a Bachelor of Arts degree in a higher learning institution. However, it was not easy for her as tons of school work further led to the deterioration of her eyesight. Helen soon travelled around the world giving lectures about her experiences. She has been an ambassador of faith and determination to many people. Perseverance also shows the spirit of service and commitment to people. Franklin D. Roosevelt is one of the famous American presidents because of the policies and political changes he started. His leadership started just in time when the unemployment rate is high and the economy was in slump. He proposed a program to bring relief to those who are unemployed, recover losses in business and enacted some reforms for the citizenry. Despite of all

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Ask week6 m 8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ask week6 m 8 - Essay Example 621), the knowledge of â€Å"Winner Curse† helps professionals to become more aware of issues and matters at hand. It also helps an individual to be more creative and innovative in future decision making process. Operation successful: patient dead is defined by Holmes (1985) as a phrase that explains changes and reforms in the health care sector. It expounds on possible predicaments that may hinder the transformation process. For example, the transformation in healthcare sector in Canada can be referred to as operation successful: Patient Dead. According to Masuch (1983, p. 17), vicious circle is articulated when a wrong decision in an organization is followed by another wrong decision for a long period. This may be due to poor policies and ideologies As observed by Breyer (1993, p. 87), vicious circle can be alleviated through change of attitude and improvement in organization tactics such as a change in decision making tactics. For instance, the involvement of all stakeholders in decision making process is very critical in averting the vicious circle According to Rothstein (2005, p. 67), decision paradox is a situation where a rational decision making process leads to unexpected results, which may undermine the objectives and goals of the decision maker. For example, a failed plan aimed at improving organization performance can be referred to as decision paradox (Amason and Mooney, 2008, p. 407). As stated by Bell (1982, p.961), to counter the impact of decision paradox, decision makers ought to identify the decision paradox risks and develop ways of managing them in decision making process. For example, any decision to expand organization operations ought to be preceded by a comprehensive market survey According to Bulow and Klemperer (2002, p. 7), winner curse is more likely to occur in a competitive environment. Competitive environment leads to increased level of uncertainty relating to the value of the product or services to bid (Burger

Monday, July 22, 2019

Is Jealousy Ever a Good Thing Essay Example for Free

Is Jealousy Ever a Good Thing Essay Jealousy has always been one of the meanest quality of mankind. What is worse is that, it is almost inevitable. In one way or another, jealousy enters our lives, naturally and sometimes unconsciously, creating suffering for ourselves and others. As events from history and daily life have shown, human’s failure to stay away from this instinct has led to ruined relationships, suffering for everyone involved, and even demoralization. Let’s take Cesare Borgia as an example of how dangerous jealousy is to human. As the oldest son of the powerful Pope Alexander VI of Vatican, Cesare is said to have everything, from wealth to land and power. Compared to his brother Giovanni, however, Cesare himself felt inferior. He was sick of seeing Giovanni taking away from him beautiful women and more affection from the Pope, as well as losing more important military duties and national honor in to his brother. In situations like this, it is human nature to feel jealous, but Cesare’s extreme envy led him to kill his brother. Now having gained absolute power, it is ironic that Cesare was still not happy. His father was so upset that he imprisoned himself in a palace for a long time, and Cesare was detested by Giovanni’s wife and many family members. From the story, it is startling how jealousy can make people do crazy things and turn brotherhood into rivalry, degrading moral values and causing agony to everyone. Daily life proves to be a huge source of evidences for the negative effects of jealousy. I feel sad to see the way some of my friends at school treat each other like rivals. Because of excessive competitiveness in academics, the scene of some classmates making fun of somebody else’s low grade is not uncommon. I am astonished at the way many students turn so indifferent whenever I ask them for help with my homework, and the way they wish each other to fail exams so that they can climb to the top of the class. People may argue that being jealous of others’ success gives them extra determination. They must have not realized that friendship is more important than superficial achievements. By being jealous, they actually develop a selfish attitude, and sacrifice what may have become their lifelong friendships. Among the many ways to achieve our goals, being jealous is absolutely the worst one, for proofs from both history and daily life have shown that it can destroy friendships and creates rivalry. Unless people can avoid it and take others’ success as a model and motivation for themselves to make progress, they will never have what they want.

Sunday, July 21, 2019

The relationship marketing

The relationship marketing Introduction Relationship marketing has become a widely applied and recognised way in which the hotel industry has been able to sell itself to guests. Prior to the start of the essay, the definition of relationship marketing must be addressed. Kotler et al. (2007) defines relationship marketing as the process in which the construction, cultivation and strengthening of strong value laden relationships with customers and other stakeholders occur. Another way relationship marketing can be defined is as with Dwyer et al. (1987, p. 12) both business marketing and consumer marketing benefit from attention to conditions that foster relational bonds leading to reliable repeat purchase. With this in mind, the idea that relationship marketing is a marketing strategy used in the context of the hotel industry for increased benefits both financial and otherwise via repeated purchases will be applied to within the scope of this essay. Recent shifts from the traditional side of transactional marketing to the inception of relationship marketing in recent times has seen a softer approach rather than a dominant approach to making sales transactions, and thus increases the relevance of the application of relationship marketing to the hotel industry. (Gummesson, 1999) While there are many perceptions as well as views to the notion of relationship marketing, this essay intends to focus on the advantages as well as the drawbacks of relationship marketing within the hotel industry, recommendations as well as propositions with regards its future directions will too be discussed with relevance to the question. Pros of Relationship Marketing Customer Loyalty A significant benefit that can be derived from successful relationship marketing (RM) in a business is the development of loyalty in customers. Hennig-Thurau, Gwinner Gremler (2002) mentioned that customer loyalty and positive word-of-mouth recommendations are usually the two outcomes of effective RM. Furthermore, it is further emphasised by Reynold Beatty (1999) that RM can provide exclusive benefits for customers, consequently reducing competition from other businesses that offer the same product which can thus assist in the achievement of consumer loyalty. Oliver (1997) defines loyalty as a close bonding between the consumer and the seller which results in frequent purchase of a certain product or service from the same supplier, despite the influence from other competitors which has the potential to evoke switching behaviour in consumers. The concept of customer loyalty has long been regarded as an important aspect of the integral operations occurring in organisations nowadays, as companies are becoming increasingly aware of the rewards to be reaped in the form of superior financial performance in the long run. This is further supported by Dowling Uncles (1997) purporting that loyal customers are more likely to spend additionally and often make favourable recommendations to other potential customers. In addition, McMullan Gilmore (2008) noted that greater knowledge and understanding of customer loyalty may allow companies to align their management strategies to meet the different needs of its customers in a more effective manner and hence, resulting in a more profitable business. Therefore, many hotels in todays world have implemented their own customer relationship management (CRM) system in order to offer their customers a unique and satisfying experience by accurately identifying the various needs of customers. Lo, Stalcup Lee (2010) stated that the concept of CRM has evolved over the past decades into a strategy employed by many organisations to integrate the different aspects present in the company, so that a greater understanding of their customers can be attained and ultimately, resulting in a long-term profitable relationship between the customers and themselves. However, it is crucial for hotels not to overlook other areas that are closely related to the concept of customer loyalty, instead of just merely focusing on the establishment of an effective CRM system. Customer loyalty is often linked to other service management concepts such as customer satisfaction and customer centricity. Businesses including the hotel industry should be mindful and take into consideration these other concepts that might affect the development of customer loyalty the ultimate aim of successful RM. It is also critical for hotels to recognise the obstacles impeding them from instilling loyalty in customers. One of the more noteworthy obstacles includes unresolved areas of dissatisfaction in consumers which, if left unattended, can result in dropping sales and profitability (McMullan Gilmore 2008). Therefore, a two-way communication becomes all the more essential for businesses to understand what customers want and knowing how to deal with dissatisfaction Lastly, managers should always assess the pros and cons of a loyalty program before implementing them, so that resources get measured and managed. Focus on Customer Retention Another advantage derived from relationship marketing is the increased profitability that stems from the retention as opposed to capturing new customers. Firstly, customer retention can be defined as the ability of a firms offer for a customer to purchase or patronage its product over a specific time period. (Shajahan, S, 2004. p.109) This occurs when, in the context of this essay, a hotel adopts a customer management orientation where it seeks to apply RM to retain its customers. Customer retention reduces marketing costs and as such benefits the hotel financially. This means that hotels need to spend potentially less money to attract customers they have lost as a result of the defection of its existing ones. This was exemplified in a study showing increase in profit by 25% to 125% in a company when it retained 5% more of its customers. (Reichheld, F Sasser, WE, 1990) This can be done by the hotel developing a customer retention strategy and thus focussing its energies on particular customers in which they would like to retain. This is as not all customers are worth the additional effort as well as cost to retain, certain customers are with more important with regards to their perceived value to the company as well as potential for development in the future (Buttle F, 2009). In the context of a hotel for example, a hotel might want to centre its attention on the higher spending, more affluent members of its clientele, as they represent more profits for the c ompany as compared to the ordinary spending customer that patronises the hotel. With these measures and understanding of customer retention in place, hotels can reap increased profits as an advantage of relationship marketing. Word-of-mouth (WOM) Advertising As mentioned earlier in this paper, one of the desired outcomes of successful RM is the positive word-of-mouth recommendations by satisfied customers. WOM has been regarded as a powerful tool of communication which can influence consumers purchasing behaviour and judgements (John 1994). Sweeney, Soutar Mazzarol (2008) further elaborated that WOM behaviour plays an influential role in promotion and it is very important especially in businesses that provide services such as hotels. Zeithaml (1981) reinstated that WOM creates significant impacts in service organisations because the intangibility of service made it impossible for consumers to pre-trial the product before purchasing it. Hence, it is paramount that hotel operators are aware that WOM behaviour can affect them to a large extent. Though significant repercussions may prove to be an issue if negative words about the company were to spread around, operators of hotels should be forewarned of the positives that WOM marketing can provide for them. For instance, WOM can reduce geographical boundaries that used to exist in traditional marketing, especially true with the increased affluence of internet in our modern society today. This is supported by Trusov, Bucklin Pauwels (2009) stating that the use of Internet can provide many various platforms and avenues for users to share their views and opinions with one another. In addition, it also serves as an advertising channel which can lower costs and ensure that consumers receive the message in the shortest possible time. Costs Savings for Businesses As most organisations face difficulties in nurturing and maintaining long-term relationships with their customers (1999), the advancement of information technology (IT) has significantly improved efficiency and decreased the costs associated with RM. For customers, RM through the use of IT will ensure a better understanding and better fit for marketing efforts (Xu, Yen, Lin Chou 2002). For hotels, RM through the use of IT means moving from general market segmentation to a more definitive segmentation while enhancing the level of intimacy between the hotel and her guests (Gummesson 1994). Barlow (1992) concurs that generally, guests desires to be communicated with on a one-on-one basis. Based on past data collected through the use of information systems and property management systems, hotels are able to utilise sequential data in RM (Grà ¶nroos 1995). Berry (1995) perceives that the use of IT in customer RM will facilitate information exchange, allow possible tracking of buying patterns, and the personalisation of service experience. This translates into cost-savings for the hotel for their marketing efforts. Understanding the Market Relationship marketing can be taken advantage to narrow the demand gap for accommodation rooms caused by seasonality of tourism demand. As mentioned by Butler (2001), seasonality in tourism exacerbates problems relating to capital access, retention of skilled labour and the under-utilisation of resources such as hotel rooms. Generally, the two main causes of seasonality in tourism has been identified as natural causes and institutionalised causes (Hartmann 1986). Weather conditions can often lead to the seasonality of demand in tourism (Kozak Rimmington 2000). As such, the ski industry has a large turnover rate of employees and often, ski resorts are vacant during the summer (Ismert Petrick 2004). Based on the geographical environment that it is in, hotels can actually sell nature tourism to potential guests during the off peak seasons. By having leisure activities at the destination, it creates a compelling justification for travellers to stay over. This form of marketing would be best communicated via the use of relationship marketing as hotels will have a better understand of guests preferences. Similarly, hotels can utilise existing guest records to target those that do not have work obligations for instance, and those that they deem as potential guests. During the low-peak seasons, hotels can make use of that as a selling advantage. A different group of guests may be attracted as a result of marketing the hotel to be quiet and peaceful. For example, by creating special packages that addresses accessibility issues, and includes a wide variety of leisure options and accommodation standards for the elderly, the hotel is able to tap on the retired greying population and boost room occupancy rates even during these periods. Cons of Relationship Marketing Importance of Recognising Cultural Differences One of the disadvantages of RM, and especially so for global hotel businesses, is that cultural differences are not being recognized when a single approach is being implemented for different societies. Culture must be first defined in this essay as an integrated system of learned behaviour patterns that are distinguishing characteristics of the members of any given society (Czinkota, MR Ronkainen, IA, 2007 p.54) This would mean that different cultures adopt different mindsets on various issues, attitudes and feelings. In the context of this essay this means various cultures respond differently with respect to RM in hotels. For example, Chinese tourists attach great significance to ritualistic behaviour such as a smile, greeting or a hand-shake as part of a service orientated experience which represents respect and importance of the guests. In the UK, however, ritual greetings by hotel employees are rare; furthermore interactions with guests from Chinese cultures are inclined to be h indered by language barriers. (Wang,Y. Vela,MR. Tyler, K.2008) This means that tourists from a Chinese culture would be affected in ways that guests from for example, a western culture would not be. Hotels therefore are faced with the constant challenge of providing a positive service experience for a variety of visitors with different expectations and needs. It is also noted that RM in the Chinese cultural setting is approached in a different manner than how it is done in western cultures. In the former, it is custom to establish kuan-hsi (networking/relationship) first followed by the business dealing. However in western cultures, a closer relationship is fostered only after the business dealing, with the view of acquiring further business opportunities. (Gilbert, DTsao, J,2000) In the hotels context this would mean that international hotel chains such as Starwood would have to deal with local suppliers or partners in different ways with regards to business dealings. A deal in China would not be approached in the same way as a deal in New York, lest offending or putting off potential suppliers. Hence the challenges faced by global hotel brands in RM with regards to different cultures. Involvement of High Costs for Training and Software Because of the different approaches to RM and a need to recognise these different cultural elements, hotel employees are required to undergo a stringent training process. As Zelkowitz (2005) advocates, the high costs related to relationship marketing generally spawns from the recruitment and training of staff. Thus, it contributes to the additional costs of the hotel. Furthermore, managing relationships have now been rarely limited to just the customer and the business, but also relationships with other stakeholders such as agencies and other suppliers which have different levels of integration and ways of operating. As a result of these complexities identified, many hotels are utilising integrated RM software to simplify their business operations process and effectively manage these multiple relationships. As such, this technology acquisition contributes to ongoing operating costs for the hotel and can be viewed as a form of maintenance (Little Marandi 2003). Counter Productivity of Relationship Marketing While trying to meet the needs of existing loyal guests, RM may have an adverse impact on customer loyalty. Sending unsolicited promotional materials such as mass customised emails to guests may risk jeopardising the relationship the hotel has with the guest (Brown Muchira 2004; Prasad, Ramamurthy Naidu 2001). At the same time, RM can result in guests being bombarded with promotional messages from various hotels that they have previously lived in. Bowie and Buttle (2004) believe that customer loyalty can only be dedicated to a small number of brands. Thus, overloading of information via marketing might be counterproductive and will eventually result in less benefits for both the hotel and the customers (Jayachandran, Sharma, Kaufman Raman 2005). Although RM might be able to anticipate guests needs and wants by accessing sequential records in the information system, it is important to remember that individual guests may not always desire for the same product and service even when b eing at the same property (Bowie Buttle 2004). Negligence of Existing Customers RM can be detrimental to any business if used in an improper manner. For instance, certain hotels may tend to use RM or tailor their strategies toward acquiring new markets whilst at the same time, lesser emphasis is placed on managing existing guest relationships. As previously established, the cost of attaining a new customer is five to six times more than retaining a loyal guest (Ndubisi, Malhotra Wah 2009), meaning some hotels suffer from the leaky bucket syndrome as they seem more interested in attracting new customers rather than retaining existing ones (Dowling Uncles 1997; Gummesson 1994). Limitations and Recommendations It has been widely accepted that the main objectives of relationship marketing and management is to establish long lasting relationships between the hotel and its guests through the increase in consumer knowledge and also establishing a two way relationship which is mutual and beneficial for both parties (Llamas-Alonso, Jimenez-Zarco, Martinez-Ruiz Dawson, 2009). The aforementioned points suggest that sound relationship management can lead to several benefits that increase the value of the hotel, provide competitive advantages, and enhance its competitive market positioning, which is then translated to the improvement in the hotels financial performance (Ryals, 2005; Boulding, Staelin, Ehret, Johnston, 2005). However, evidence also points out that effective relationship marketing requires heavy investment in information and communication technologies (ICTs) and also much effort in order to maintain these long-term relationships (Little Marandi 2003). Henceforth, this section aims t o explore existing limitations pertinent in the implementation of a relationship marketing strategy in hotels and subsequently, propose recommendations to address some of these issues identified. A plethora of research have been done in the area of CRM and they all seem to concur that the CRM framework no longer refers to just relationships between the business and the consumer, but also other organisations and parties interconnected within the framework, one where Gummesson (2004) has termed as a complex network of relationships. Several authors continue to expound on this, stating that these relationships frequently involve different mechanisms of governance, instruments of authority and control, levels of integration, and purposes which thus contributes to this complexity (Achrol Kotler, 1999; Rindfleisch Moorman, 2001), making CRM difficult to implement successfully. According to the Gartner Group ( 2002) and authors Srinivasan Moorman (2005), this complexity also mean certain aspects have not been addressed and thus constitutes to one of the reasons why a high percentage of CRM projects have failed and not liven up to the expectations of it. Hence, it is now understoo d that while these challenges are difficult to address, overcoming the complexity is integral for relationship marketing strategies to be successful within any hotel business. The multidimensional nature of relationship marketing entails proper foundations be established by the hotel management before the implementation of any CRM strategies. It is therefore recommended that the strategic objectives to be achieved by implementing CRM be defined clearly in the early in the planning stages. This ensures that it is clearly aligned to the overall hotel objectives and will thus be able to contribute strongly to hotel operations. As managing multiple relationships become more complex, it is also recommended that a performance management tool specifically catered toward CRM should be established in order to evaluate the success of the CRM strategy. This proposal builds upon the works of Sin, Tse Yim (2005), which proposes a potential tool for measuring performances in relationship marketing, defining the concept as a multidimensional construct consisting of four broad areas strategy, people, technology and processes. Therefore, this approach of recognising other dimensions will enable the hotel to take on a more holistic approach toward relationship marketing and CRM. Furthermore, with technology being increasingly relied on in managing these relationships, these evaluative tools will be able to measure the success of these information systems to ensure it delivers its intended outcomes. As mentioned earlier in this paper, relationship marketing not only refer to creating strong and long-lasting relationships with hotel guests, but also extends to other stakeholders such as suppliers and potential and existing employees (Christopher, Payne Ballatyne, 1991). Employees play a decisive role in managing relationships with guests since they become partners and co-producers in the customer experience (Llamas-Alonso et al., 2009). While most CRM strategies have tended to focus on guest satisfaction, guest loyalty and other areas relation to customer attitudes toward the hotel brand, it is then recommended that equal emphasis be placed on managing employee relationships and suppliers alike in order to increase the probability of successfully delivering the intended outcomes of the overall relationship marketing strategy. Benefits of Recommendations The development of measurement systems will allow hotel managers to anticipate how CRM will work and determine the way CRM will influence the achievement of the hotels strategic objectives. By designing and implementing a balanced, complex, and multi-dimensional measurement system, hotels will then be able to anticipate the future ability of CRM to achieve its objectives through a predictive performance measurement system or establish the level of real success achieved by CRM through an evaluative performance measurement system (Llamas-Alonso et al., 2009). Additionally, the implementation of evaluative measures in hotels will be able to provide important information to key decision-makers, allowing them to determine whether their efforts are on track with the overall relationship marketing strategy. Also, it will help managers to understand whether their programs are succeeding or failing by signalling potential managerial problems when the performance indicators are not able to track in the desired function (Llamas-Alonso et al., 2009). Above all, these measures will encourage hotel managers to take initiative and be accountable, at the same time, clarifying the process for the expectations and requirements of policy makers. The implementation of Performance Management and Control Systems (PMCS) with a predictive orientation will essentially help to minimise the risks of decision making and pave the way for hotel strategies to be executed, consequently improving the return on investments associated with the implementation of relationship marketing programs (Argyres, 1999). Furthermore, as Llamas-Alonso et al. (2009) purports, comparing the predictive and achieved objectives in the hotel will be able to establish the divergences between the expected results and the achieved results, thus improving efficiency and efficacy of the relationship marketing strategy as well. Conclusion After a thorough analysis of the relationship marketing concept within the of hotel industry, it is evident that relationship marketing if utilised appropriately, can lead to significant potential benefits for the hotel business. Such benefits include positive word of mouth recommendations to future customers as a direct result of customer loyalty, greater cost savings for business, increasing occupancy rate during off-seasons and also, customer retention all of which translates into higher profits and improving the overall functionality of the hotel. Despite the benefits gained, relationship marketing can also present several drawbacks to hotel operators. In todays world, globalisation has allowed the interactions between people of different ethnicity and cultural practice to take place more frequently. This means that understanding different cultures and learning to deal with different people becomes all the more relevant and could potentially sap large amount of time and effort. In addition to this, the costs required to establish a CRM system and training employees to be proficient in it can be exorbitant. It should be noted however, that these are investments that need to be made in order for relationship marketing to be implemented successfully and thus entail proper planning and objectives setting. Furthermore, the multidimensional nature of relationship marketing means hotels face much complexity. Hence, it is imperative that performance measures with an evaluative focus should be utilised in order to ensure the success of a relationship marketing strategy. It was also noted in this paper that relationships with suppliers and especially employees need to be managed as well, since the latter contribute to delivering the overall guest satisfaction. The adoption of a relationship marketing approach involves a great challenge for the firm, since it means a different way of understanding the marketing strategy, the market and the approach to the guest. Above all, hotel businesses need to be able to communicate this strategy to its staff, and ensure that the relationship marketing strategy is fully embraced and the organisation fully aligned to it in order for the business to face the multitude of challenges for the future. List of References Achrol, R. S. Kotler, P. 1999, Marketing in the network economy [special issue], Journal of Marketing, vol. 63, pp. 146-163. Argyres, N. S. 1999, The impact of information technology on coordination: Evidence from the b-stealth bomber, Organisation Science, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 162. 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Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas

Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan Region: Perspective of Global Climate Change Summary Increase in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This paper highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogen ic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource. Introduction Plant diversity and Status The varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975). In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care sys tem of the local communities. It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind. Future scenario of climate change: According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has increased by 0.6 Â °C Â ± 0.2Â ° C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4Â ° C to 5.8Â ° C in the next 40 100 year. Current information available on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3Â °C in the decade of 2050s and about 5Â °C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitati on over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is noticeably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level. Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lacking in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need concern in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be happen if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the l ocal communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Climate change: Impact on different vegetation zone Natural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990; WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosy stem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction. A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and barely 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through p eople perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004). Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya. Dominant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is dominated by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003). Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the whole canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) i n Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. Vegetation of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes. The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004). Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone; 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc. The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May). In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2Â °C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. Senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and dis tribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), similarly the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999) Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjacent mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease. To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossi ble to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to developed in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning. Effect on the vegetation: Upward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers. Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation. Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species. Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests. Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions. Adverse impact on the timber production of forest. Effect on the agro-system: Changes the pattern and time of cropping. Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture. Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases. Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops; whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat. Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production. Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time. Effect on Physical system: Accelerate intensity of glacier melting. Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems. Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability. Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions. Soil properties and process like organic matter decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature. Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affected: Reduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local pastoral economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season. Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries. Economy through the hydropower generation is affected. Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc. Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc. Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible. Table: Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Altitude (m asl) Plant species 500- 1400 Shrubs: Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele, 1500-2400 Herbs: Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc. Shrubs: Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia, 2500- 3400 Herbs: Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc. Grasse Sedge: Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia. Shrubs: Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense, Trees: Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers 3500-4400 Herbs: Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifolia Grasse Sedge: Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc. Shrubs: Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Trees: Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis, 4500- above Herbs: Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensis Literature cited Rau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214. Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38. Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change: Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86. IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant: Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40; 111-124. Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48. Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth Form Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183. Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Applicati Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayas Alpine Plant Biodiversity in the Central Himalayan Region: Perspective of Global Climate Change Summary Increase in surface temperature at global scale has already affected a diverse set of physical and biological systems in many parts of the world and if it increases at this rapid rate then the condition would be worst one could have ever thought off. Garhwal Himalaya, major part of the great Himalayan mountainous system is also much sensitive and vulnerable to the local, regional and global changing climate. Due to strong altitudinal gradient, varied climatic conditions and diverse set of floral and faunal composition, the impact of climate change seems to be much higher. This paper highlights some important features of the changing pattern of vegetational composition, distribution and impact of climate change on the phenological aspect of major alpine plant species present in the Garhwal Himalayan region. It also shows cumulative changes, which operate at local level but are globally pervasive. These cumulative changes include change in the land cover/ land use and other anthropogen ic activities, which are related to the climate change. Overall biodiversity in the Himalayan region has been depleted as the consequences of complex and multitude pressure of climate change. The depleted biodiversity has indirectly affected the socio-economic development of the local communities on which their sustenance depends and is inherently critical to the consideration and management of natural resource. Introduction Plant diversity and Status The varied altitudinal, climatic and topographical conditions in the Himalaya results in different types of microhabitats. Geographic isolation, glaciations, evolution and migration of the species in the past all together have contributed to the high level of biodiversity in this mountain system. As per genetic, species and ecosystem level resources, Himalaya is one of the hotspots of biodiversity in the world, which represents about one-tenth of the worlds known species of high altitude plant and animal species. Some parts in the Himalayan region are center for origin of many crops and fruit species and are important source of gene for their wild relatives. The floral diversity of this region shows assemblage of many endemic and exotic species of plants from the adjoining regions. A large number of western Himalayan flora in the Garhwal Kumaon region seems to have been invaded from Tibet, western China and adjoining north-east Asia (Rau, 1975). In the present scenario biodiversity seems to have been depleted in these regions due to land degradation, habitat fragmentation, increasing population pressure, over exploitation of bio-resources and finally due to the changing pattern of the climate. Nearly 10% of flowering plants are listed under various categories of threatened species. Red Data Book of Indian plants listed about 620 threatened species, of which, 28 are presumed extinct, 124 endangered, 81 vulnerable, 160 rare and 34 insufficiently known (Nayar and Sastry, 1987, 1988), however, Red list of threatened plants indicates 19 species as extinct. Among others, 1236 species are listed as threatened, of which, 41 taxa are possibly extinct, 152 endangered, 102 vulnerable, 251 rare and 690 of indeterminate status (IUCN, 1997). From the Himalayan region the important plant species included in threatened categories are mostly the valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, which, support the economic condition and health care sys tem of the local communities. It is well known that, in the context of the present scenario of climate change especially due to global warming many of the high-elevated ecosystems are severely sensitive and vulnerable. Their fragility may accelerate the changes occurring in their composition and structure to the slight variations in climatic factors. These regions include glacier, alpine pasture/ meadows and timber line ecosystem, which are the important source of the seasonal runoff, freshwater, valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, grazing land, source of timber and wild edibles for the mankind. Future scenario of climate change: According to the Third Assessment Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001, average global temperature close to the earths surface has increased by 0.6 Â °C Â ± 0.2Â ° C since 19th century mainly due to the emission of CO2. If human beings do not act to reduce the present level of CO2 there will be additional increment in temperature of 1.4Â ° C to 5.8Â ° C in the next 40 100 year. Current information available on the pattern of future climate change through General Circulation Models (GCMs) suggested that the annual mean warming would increase about 3Â °C in the decade of 2050s and about 5Â °C in decade of the 2080s over the land region of Asia. Precipitation would increase annually about 7% and 11% in decades of 2050s and 2080s respectively. There would be a decline in the summer precipitation that seems likely to be over the central part of arid and semi-arid Asia. GCM also showed high uncertainty in future projection of winter and summer precipitati on over south Asia, because much of tropical Asian climate is noticeably associated with the annual monsoon cycle. In Central Himalayan region, through the assessment of people perception it is interpreted that, climate change resulted in the increase in warming, decline in rainfall during March- May, high rainfall during Aug- Sept instead of normal peak in July- Aug, decline in the snowfall intensity and winter precipitation in Jan-Feb instead of Dec-Jan (Saxena et al., 2004). This scenario can hardly trigger to think about the changing pattern of climate or its negative and positive impacts at local, regional and global level. Although assessment of future climate change scenario through some of scientific models needs a better infrastructure and high technological inputs, specific impact of climate change on different ecosystems can be discerned by comprehensive studies on long term monitoring of the different aspects of ecosystem which is lacking in the Indian context especially in the Garhwal Himalayan region due to poor infrastructure and management practices. So, as per as need concern in these remote areas the assessment of impact on the natural resources in future climate changes can be done through the site-specific sensitivity analysis and it can be related to the traditional knowledges of the peoples living in this particular region of the Himalaya. Sensitivity analysis would help to assess what will be happen if various climatic variables changed, and analysis also evaluates the positive or negative impacts of changing climate on the natural resources. This assessment would help us to make the l ocal communities realize the importance of conservation and management practice so that the endangered and threatened species could be saved from becoming extinct. Assessment of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the various ecosystems and to develop indigenous knowledge based coping mechanism are important to determine the impact of climate change. This also links the ecological processes to the social processes and appreciates the relationship between the biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Climate change: Impact on different vegetation zone Natural ecosystems at high elevations are much more sensitive to the climatic variations (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003) or global warming then the managed systems. Their sensitivity is prominently attributed to their limited productivity during snow-free growing season (Price et al., 2000), low dispersal capability, geographically localized, genetically impoverished, highly specialized and slow reproducing ability of the high altitude plants (McNeely, 1990; WWF, 2003). As a consequence of global warming the present distribution of species in high altitude ecosystems projected to shift higher as results of upward altitudinal movement of the vegetation belts. Although the rate of vegetation change is expected to be slow and colonization success would depend on the ability of adaptation and interaction of the plant species with the climate and other associated species, weeds, exotic and invasive species. Their success also depends on their ecological niche width and their role in the ecosy stem functioning. Increase in the temperature would result competition between such species and new arrivals. As the result, species which have wide ecological tolerance have an advantage to adapt and those which are at the edge of range, genetically impoverished, poor dispersal ability and reproducer are under the threshold of extinction. A likely impact of climate change is also observed over the phenological aspect of vegetation in the alpine, sub alpine and timberline zone. Changes in the pattern of snowfall and snowmelt in these mountain regions and increase in mean annual surface temperature has pronounce impact on the date and time of the flowering and other phenophases of certain valuable, keystone species of plants. Earlier snowmelt simulate early flowering in some early growing plants and possibly increase in surface temperature may extend the growing period and productivity of certain grass species in the cooler climatic region. There is a gradual decrease in the growing period from timberline to the snow line, Rawat and Pangtey, (1987) reported about 20 weeks growing period near timberline and barely 4-6 weeks above 5000 m asl. Thus, increase in the average temperature due to global warming the growing period of the vegetation would be seems to extend at high altitudes. Evidences of climate change through p eople perception in Garhwal Himalaya reveals that increase in the warming results decline in the yield of apple fruits and shortening the maturity period of winter crops, whereas, the production of cash crops like potato, peas and kidney beans under warm condition increases. Change in rainfall pattern, snowfall intensity will increase large-scale mortality and damage to the crops, which are close to the maturity on the other hand, Barley and wheat crop production is severely affected due to winter precipitation in months of Jan- Feb (Saxena et al., 2004). Vulnerability of different vegetation belts in the Garhwal Himalaya. Dominant tree species in the low and mid altitude zone have a wider range of distribution. Shorea robusta the climax species of lower elevation is distributed over moist to dry deciduous bio-climates in central India where temperature is much higher while rainfall is quite low. Quercus spp. the climax species at mid elevation is also distributed over a wide range (1100- 1800m) The mid altitude which is dominated by broad leaves and coniferous forest (Rao, 1994) mainly species of Quercus spp. and Pinus spp. on response to the warming may be replaced by the species like Shorea robusta and Terminalia spp. Warming also increases the chance of greater fire risk in dry or moist deciduous forests, these impacts on the forest can directly influence the local livelihood based on fuel and fodder (Ramakrishnan et al. 2003). Rhododendron arboreum is a very prominent forest species because of its red flowers covering almost the whole canopy. At higher elevations this species used to attain peak flowering stage in February / March but now due to warming flowering time in this species seems to shift in the months of January/February. The phenological calendar at lower altitude has thus shifted to the higher altitudes. Exact times of leaf fall, flushing, flowering and fruiting may vary depending upon the elevation indicating sensitivity of phenophases to temperature and moisture stress regime. Flowering and fruiting start earlier about a month with increase in elevation by 600 m (increase in temperature by 2.4 degree C) in Rhododendron arboreum, Prunus cerasoides, Myrica esculenta, Pyrus Pashia and Reinwardtia indica in Central Himalaya. Leafless period in deciduous species like Aesculus indica and Alnus nepalensis is longer at higher altitude as compared to lower altitude. At higher elevation (1500-3300m) i n Central Himalaya, evergreen and winter deciduous species occur equally across the elevation/temperature gradient. All across the elevation / temperature gradient, majority of tree species show vernal flowering. Species showing vernal flowering (before 15 June) increased in frequency and those with aestival flowering (between 15 June 15 September) decreased with increase in annual temperature drown based on the elevation gradient. Thus, change in the temperature would affect flowering and fruiting time of different species or also induce change in species composition. Vegetation of the timberline in different parts of world not only differs in terms of species composition but also exhibit different types of species (Crawford, 1989). In some regions the timberline represents exclusively evergreen conifers while in some it represents totally deciduous broad-leaved trees (Purohit, 2003). In the central Himalaya the Betula utilis, Abies pindrow and Rhododendron campanulatum, are the native species of timberline (Rawal and Pangtey, 1993), and have a complex, spatial habitat and reservoir of large number of medicinal and aromatic plants and wild edibles. During recent past, timberline, the most prominent ecological boundary in the Himalaya where the sub-alpine forests terminates, has been identified as sensitive zone to environmental change and could be effectively modeled / monitored for future climate change processes. The species from tree-line have a narrow range of distribution, as temperature optima for most of these species is higher than the temperature in their natural habitats, warming will be expected to promote their growth but they may be threatened if they fail to compete with the changing climatic conditions (Saxena et al., 2004). Due to the over exploitation and changing global climatic condition many of the medicinal and aromatic plants in and around the timberline shrunk in size and distribution from their natural habitats and some of them are listed rare, threatened and endangered. Besides, the herbs some tree species of the timberline across the western Himalaya viz. Taxus baccata, Betula utilis etc. are also facing sever threats of depletion (Purohit, 2003). Most of the species valued by local communities have a poor soil seed bank, there could be large-scale local extinction of these species if seed production on a landscape scale decline (Saxena et al., 2004). Swan (1967) identified two parts of the alpine region i.e. above timberline (Lower alpine zone; 300 -4000 masl) and higher alpine zone (4000 masl snowline). Grasses and sedges are dominating members of alpine vegetation at lower altitude but they are characteristically replaced by non- grassy dwarf plant species at higher altitude near snowline. The area immediate above timberline and zone of stunted trees shrubs marks the alpine scrub. The vegetation of the lower alpine zone consists of dwarf shrubs, cushionoid herbs, grasses and sedges, Salix, Rosa, Lonicera, Ribes, Cotoneaster and Berberis etc. form the major shrub species at lower alpine zone (Kala et. al., 1998). The herbaceous flora of this zone represent spectacular array of multicolored flowers and include many short period growing cycle plant species. The major herbs of this zone are Potentilla, Geranium, Fritillaria, Lilium, Corydalis, Cyananthus, Anemone, Ranunculus, and Impatiens etc. The vegetation of the higher alpine zone is rather sparse, dotted with moraines, boulders and rocky slopes forming suitable habitat for the patches of shrubs e.g. Rhododendron lepidotum, Juniperus spp. Betula utilis and many species of colourful flowering plants, grasses and sedge etc. In the alpine with the onset of summer, the physical condition of the every patches of ground undergoes constant change, this is the root cause for the instability and succession of plants. Another feature of alpine plant distribution is that in the same habitat one could see the growth of several related or unrelated species and only one species dominate in the entire habitat almost to the exclusion of the other species. This difference may be due to the Physico- chemical properties of the soil. Initiation of growing season depends on the intensity of snowfall in the proceeding season and start of the melting of snow during spring (April May). In alpine region flowering is started during the month of May in some species, but in most of the species flowering occurs during June to late July and it goes up to early August (Nautiyal et al., 2001). Jennifer A. Dunne et al. (2003) reported that in experimental condition, increasing 2Â °C average soil temperature during the growing season for every two weeks of earlier snowmelt flowering time is advanced by 11 day in the sub-alpine region. Senescence at community level was gradually starts from July to September depending on the growth cycle of the plant species in Central Himalaya (Nautiyal et al., 2001). However in a study conducted by Zhang and Welker (1996) in Tibetan Tundra alpine the community senescence, which actually starts in September was postponed until October under warmer condition and stimulates the growth of grasses. It indicates that the warmer condition as result of increase CO2 enrichment extend the growing period and increase in the grass productivity and dis tribution may suppress the growth of forbs, shrubs (Zhang and Welker, 1996), similarly the valuable medicinal plants also affected (Ramakrishnan et al., 2003). It is possible that timber productivity in the high altitudes/ longitudes could increase as result of climate change, but it could take decades to occur and the newly form forests habitats are likely to retain lower level of native biodiversity due to loss of species that are unable to cope and some species will become more abundant and widely distributed (Alward et. al., 1999) Biotic invasion is another important cause of change in the geographical distribution of the plant species, which is derived or accelerated by the global change. Elevated CO2 might enhance the long-term success and dominance of exotic grasses and their shift in species composition mainly driven by global change has potential to accelerate fire cycle and may reduce biodiversity (Smith et al, 2000). The water use efficiency due to increase atmospheric CO2 can allow increase in potential distribution of Acacia nilotica spp. indica in Australia and increase temperature favour its reproductive life cycle (Kriticos et al, 2003). As the glaciers are receding at a fast rate the newly formed moraine belt is an excellent area to study the invasion of plants from the adjacent mountains and pastures.In recent several land uses and land covers of the high altitude is eroded due to the glacier melting, avalanches and land slides, which favour to extend the distribution of Polygonum polystachyum, a fast growing herb, is mostly found on freshly eroded slopes, past camping sites, river banks and avalanche tracks (Kala et. al., 1998). The other successful invaders found in these habitats are species of Lonicera and Berberis followed by Rosa and Ephedra. Increase temperature may results higher pathogen survival rate and most of the plant species will be severely threatened due to insect, pest and fungal disease. To the changing climate, plants can respond following possible ways firstly no change in their species composition but change in productivity and biogeochemical cycle. Secondly, evolutionary adaptation to the new climatic condition either through plasticity (i.e. shift in phenology) or through genetic response. Followed by emigration to the new areas, as warming observed in the alpine has been associated with upward movement of some plant taxa by 1-4 meter per decade on mountain tops and loss of some taxa that formally were restricted to higher altitude (Grabherr et.al., 1994). Ultimately, they may undergo extinction (Bawa and Dayanandan 1998, Ramakrishnan et al.2003). Most of the plant species changes over time through the process of succession, with pioneer species preparing the way for others, identifying the species present, the physical forms plant takes and the area they occupied are the way for observing change. All the changes involve dynamic and that are difficult or impossi ble to predict, natural ecosystems in this regard serve as a kind of natural laboratory, where natural mechanisms of change such as change in climatic condition and change in the feature of physical and biological systems observe practically. Appropriate management strategies need to developed in such a way that it may have to find a new balance between traditional conservation and maintenance of biodiversity and other ecosystem functioning. Effect on the vegetation: Upward movement of the vegetation belt. It result change in the pattern of structure and distribution of many valuable plant species, Reduction in the area of severely sensitive ecosystem like high altitude pastures, snow cover peaks and important glaciers. Changes in the phenology of some plant species, which include change in time of flowering and seed formation. Changes in the habitat, which is favourable for new alien weedy and invasive species. Increases fire risk in the sub-temperate and temperate dry deciduous and pine forests. Increases productivity of some grass species from the high altitude regions. Adverse impact on the timber production of forest. Effect on the agro-system: Changes the pattern and time of cropping. Shortening the maturity period of some winter crops, which are traditionally important constituent of mountain agriculture. Increase in the pathogen survival rate and crops are more susceptible to pest, insect and fungal diseases. Decline in the yield productivity of some traditional crops; whereas increasing temperature may also be favour the productivity crops like wheat. Decline in the yield of some horticultural fruits which needs chilling effect for their fruit development as seen in case of Apple fruit production. Uncertain high precipitation leads to destruction of crop productivity during flowering, seed formation and maturation time. Effect on Physical system: Accelerate intensity of glacier melting. Reduces area under snow cover and changes the time of snowmelt and snowfall at high-elevated ecosystems. Adverse impact on the seasonal runoff, freshwater availability. Increases the incident of landslides in mountains, drought condition and sever flood condition at lowland regions. Soil properties and process like organic matter decomposition, leaching and soil-water relation were influenced by increase temperature. Socio-economic conditions of the humankind severely affected: Reduction in the area of pasture adversely affect the local pastoral economy, as most of the local livestock of the transhumant and adjoining lowland peoples depends on the high altitude pastures in Garhwal in the summer season. Impact on the timber, medicinal plants and agriculture in the high altitude region in some extent gives negative results to the related industries. Economy through the hydropower generation is affected. Change in the social culture of the peoples living at high altitude regions, i.e. the time of the migration of the transhumant in Garhwal in recent affected due to the adverse climatic conditions. Which also affect their source of economy like agriculture, wool based occupation etc. Changes were also seen in the health conditions of the people living in high altitude, peoples of these regions now more worried about the heat stresses, vector borne diseases, respiratory, eye disorder etc. Status of many endangered wildlife fauna in the Himalayan region affected, and changes in the behavioural and seasonal migration of the animal species can be possible. Table: Distribution of some major plant species at different altitudinal belt of Garhwal Himalaya. Altitude (m asl) Plant species 500- 1400 Shrubs: Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa, Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Adina cardifolia, Terminalia, Cassia fistula, Mallotus philippensis, Bombax ceiba.Agele, 1500-2400 Herbs: Clematis montana, Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii,Barbarea vulgaris, Silene indica, Malvia verticillata, Geraanium nepalense, Fragaria indica, Potentilla fulgens Epilobium pulustre,Bupleurum falcatum, Aster peduncularis, A. thomsonii, , Gentiana aprica etc. Shrubs: Prunus cornuta, Rosa macrophylla, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Woodfordia fructicosa Trees: Rhododendron arboreum, Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sisso, Acacia catechu, Pinus roxburghii,P. wallichiana, Quercus leucotricophora, Q. semecarpifolia, Adina cardifolia, 2500- 3400 Herbs: Anemone rivularis, A. obturiloba, Ranunculus hirtellus, Thalictrum chelidonii, T. minus, T. elegans, Aquilegiaa pubiflora, Caltha palustris Clematis montana, Clematis barbellata, Delphinium vestitum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Corydalis cornuta, Arabis nova, Viola canescens, Silene edgeworthii, S. Indica, Stellaria monosperma, Geranium collinum, G. himalayense, Trigonella emodi, Geum roylei, Potentilla fruticosa, P. fulgens, P. gelida, P. leuconota, P. polyphylla etc. Grasse Sedge: Carex cruciata, Agrostis pilosula,Poa supina, P. alpina, Danthonia. Shrubs: Cotoneaster macrophylla, Cotoneaster acuminatus, Lonicera, Salix, Rubus foliolosus, Spiraea bella, Berberis glaucocarpa, Myricaria bracteata, Skimmia laaureola, Astragallus candolleanus, Rosa macrophylla. Ribes himalense, Trees: Betula utilis, Taxus baccata, Rhododendron campanulatum, Alnus nitida, A. nepalensis, Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Acer ceasium, Junipers 3500-4400 Herbs: Cypridium elegans*, C. himalaicum, Epipogium aphyllum, Dactylorrhiza hatagirea, Listera tenuis, Neottianthe secundiflora, Aconitum balfouri, A. falconeri, A. heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Ranunculus pulchellus, Thalictrum alpinum, Podophyllum hexandrum, Acer caesium*, Meconopsis aculeate, Corydalis sikkimensis, Megacarpaea polyandra, Astragallus himalayanus, Nardostachys graandiflora*, Picrorhiza kurrooa*, Pleurospermum angelicoides, Saussurea costus*, S. obvallata, Angelica glauca, Ribes griffithii, Lonicera asperifolia, Waldhemia tomentosa, Primula glomerata, Arnebia benthamii, Geranium pratense, Impatiens thomsonii, I. racemosa, Dioscorea deltoidea*, Allium humile, A. stracheyi*, A. wallichi, Clintonia udensis, Thamnocalamus falconeri, Orobanche alba, Sedum ewersii, S. heterodontum,Pimpnella diversifolia, Morina longifolia Grasse Sedge: Elymus thomsonii, Agrostis munroana, Calamagrostis emodensis, Danthonia cachemyriana, Festuca polycolea, Poa pagophila, Stipa roylei, Carex infuscate, C. nivalis, Kobresia royleana, K. duthei etc. Shrubs: Cotoneaster duthiana, Cotoneaster acuminatus Hippophae tibetana, Rosa sericea, Sorbus macrophylla, S. ursine, Rhododendron anthopogon, Trees: Sorbus aucuparia, Cedrus deodara, Betulla utilis, 4500- above Herbs: Oxygraphis glacialis, Ranunculus pulchellus,Corydalis bowerii, Alyssum canescens,Draba altaica, Silene gonosperma, Potentilla sericea, Sedum bouverii, Saussurea obvallata, S. simpsoniana, Christolea himalayensis Literature cited Rau, M. A. (1975). High altitude flowering plants of west Himalaya. BSI, Howrah, India, pp.214. Singh, D. K. and Hajra, P. K., in Changing Perspectives of Biodiversity Status in the Himalaya (eds Gujral, G. S. and Sharma, V.), British Council Division, British High Commission, Publ. Wildlife Youth Services, New Delhi, 1996, pp. 23-38. Dunne, J.A., Harte, J. and Taylor, K. (2003). Sub alpine Meadow Flowering Phenology Responses To Climate Change: Integrating Experimental And Gradient Methods, Ecological Monographs 73 (1), pp. 69-86. IPCC (2001). Climate Change-2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Kriticos, D.J., Sutherst, R.W., Brown, J.K., Adkings, S.W. and Maywald, G.F. (2003) Climate Change and The Potential Distribution of an Invasive Alien Plant: Acacia nilotica ssp.indica in Australia, Journal of Applied Ecology, 40; 111-124. Nautiyal, B.P., Prakash, V and Nautiyal, M.C. (2000). Structure And Diversity Pattern Along An Altitudinal Gradient In An Alpine Meadow Of Madhyamaheshwer, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian Journal of Environmental Science 4(I). 39- 48. Nautiyal, M.C., Nautiyal, B.P. and Prakash, V. (2001). Phenology And Growth Form Distribution In An Alpine Pasture At Tungnath, Garhwal Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, Vol. 21, No. 2, 177-183. Price, M.V. and Waser, N.M. (2000). Responses of sub alpine meadow vegetation to four year of experimental warming. Ecological Applicati